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It s then fairly easy to see how individual parts of the same type can be swapped for each other, and how a team (an interdependent collection) of types of parts can be needed to build a whole logical function While a usage of loose coupling is more difficult to comprehend, a usage of tight coupling is more difficult to change Tight coupling means that parts are directly dependent on each other, which means that changes in one part are more likely to adversely affect other parts and thus require more changes So, tight coupling (direct dependence) cascades the effects of changes It s very enlightening, here, to take a look at a bit of software history When there was very little memory available for any one program, programs were very restricted in size; each was, therefore, a functional module.

Figure 3-7. The memory heap Although your program can store items in the heap, it cannot explicitly delete them. Instead, the CLR s Garbage Collector (GC) automatically cleans up orphaned heap objects when it determines that your code will no longer access them. This frees you from what in other programming languages can be an error-prone task. Figure 3-8 illustrates the garbage collection process.

Object remove(); boolean remove(Object element); Object removeFirst(); boolean removeFirstOccurrence(Object element) Object removeLast(); boolean removeLastOccurrence(Object element); int size();

The type of a data item defines how much memory is required to store it, the data members that comprise it, and the functions that it is able to execute. The type also determines where an object is stored in memory the stack or the heap. Types are divided into two categories: value types and reference types. Objects of these types are stored differently in memory. Value types require only a single segment of memory which stores the actual data. Reference types require two segments of memory: The first contains the actual data and is always located in the heap. The second is a reference that points to where in the heap the data is stored. Data that is not a member of another type is stored as shown in Figure 3-9. For value types, data is stored on the stack. For reference types, the actual data is stored in the heap and the reference is stored on the stack.

As memory availability grew, so did programs; few developers recognized the value of the interdependent pieces of code The most popular thing to do was the easier thing, which didn t include the extra considerations of the ability to directly swap one piece of code for another; consequently, the inherent modularity was lost It can easily be seen that those extra considerations at that time could have caused object orientation to become popular much earlier in software s history; it can easily be seen that the trends of software designing might actually have just gone in the wrong direction at that time Across all of the object-oriented systems that have ever existed, all of the countless interaction mechanisms have been of only a relatively few types; all of the interaction mechanisms of any particular type have common characteristics (components and behaviors).